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Oxford Law Citator
Contents
Expand All
Collapse All
Preliminary Material
Dedication
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Table of cases
Tables of Legislation
National Legislation
Australia
Canada
Hong Kong
India
New Zealand
Singapore
South Africa
UK
European Legislation
Table of Conventions
Table of Provisions from the American Uniform Commercial Code
Table of ICC’s Codes of Rules and Banking Practices
Main Text
General Introduction
A.01
A.02
A.03
A.04
A.05
Part I Setting Up a Letter of Credit Transaction
Preliminary Material
Introduction to Part I
PI.01
1 Business Framework of the Credit Device
A Essential Purpose of Credit Vis-à-Vis Other Means of Payment
1.01
(1) Advance payment
1.02
(2) Sales on open account
1.03
(3) Employing a bill of exchange
1.04
(a) Manner in which the bill performs its role
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.08
1.09
(b) Reciprocal rights and obligations of the parties in a nutshell
1.10
(c) Disadvantages to the seller of using the bill to obtain payment
1.11
1.12
(d) Conclusion
1.13
(4) Mercantile cure for the risk of non-payment
1.14
1.15
1.16 ISP98.
The UCP.
1.17
1.18
B Legal Status of the UCP in Credits
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
C Credit Terminologies and Certain of Their Functions
1.24
(1) Presumed irrevocability of the undertaking in the credit
1.25
(2) Unconfirmed and confirmed credit distinguished
1.26
1.27 Special significance of confirmed credit.
(3) ‘Nominated bank’ defined
1.28 Banks requested to act merely as document transmission channels.
1.29 Banks authorized but unobligated to honour or negotiate documents.
1.30 Banks that have added their confirmation to credits at issuers’ request.
1.31 Banks obligated to honour or negotiate under unconfirmed credits.
(4) ‘Honour’
1.32
(5) Modes of availability
1.33
(a) Sight payment credit
1.34
(b) Deferred payment credit
1.35
1.36
1.37
(c) Acceptance credit
1.38
1.39
(d) Negotiation credit
1.40
1.41
Advantages of negotiation credit.
1.42
1.43
1.44
(e) Conclusion on modes of availability of credit
1.45
1.46
(6) ‘Clean credit’
1.47
(7) Red clause credit
1.48
1.49 Risk associated with red clause credit.
(8) Other ways of employing credits
1.50
1.51 Assignment of proceeds.
(a) Transferable credit
1.52
1.53
1.54
Differences between a transferee and an assignee of a credit.
1.55
1.56
(b) Back-to-back credit
1.57
(c) Distinctive features of the back-to-back credit
1.58
(d) Realization of the back-to-back credit
1.59
(e) Standby credit
1.60
1.61
1.62
1.63
1.64
D Conclusion
1.65
2 Parties’ Roles in the Credit Opening Process
A General
2.01
2.02
B Completing an Application for a Credit
2.03
(1) Applicant’s duty in filling out the form
2.04
2.05
(2) Applicant’s main line of self-protection
2.06
2.07 Applicant’s silence on appropriate document.
(3) Some standard clauses in the application form
2.08
C Assessing the Completed Application for Credit
(1) Commonplace considerations
2.09
2.10
(2) Bank’s obligation during its evaluation of the application
2.11
(a) Source of obligation
2.12
(b) General rule
2.13
(c) Exceptions to the general rule
2.14
2.15 Discharge of duty to inspect application with due care
Onus of proof of due care.
2.16
2.17
2.18 Negligence or estoppel operating against putative applicant present context , a forged
2.19 Applicant’s knowledge or suspicion of deception
(iv) Applicant’s substantial contribution to forgery of signature
2.20
2.21
2.22 Fraudulent applicant’s apparent authority to submit application
D Issuance of Credit to Beneficiary on an Accepted Application
2.23
(1) Introduction
2.24
2.25
(2) Can the bank be obliged to the intended beneficiary to issue credit?
2.26
2.27
2.28 Claim for non-fulfilment of the obligation.
(3) Fraudulent tested telex or SWIFT credit in beneficiary’s hands
2.29
2.30
2.31
2.32
2.33
2.34
(a) Possible defences to a claim on the credit
2.35
2.36 Ability of the credit beneficiary to present conforming documents
(ii) Handiwork of external fraudster
2.37
2.38
2.39 Beneficiary’s knowledge of the fraud
(iv) Abnormal circumstances requiring beneficiary to make reasonable inquiry
2.40
2.41
2.42
(b) Conclusion of possible defences to a fraudulent credit
2.43
(4) Moment of issue of credit
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
2.48
2.49
2.50
(5) The time for issuing credit to the intended beneficiary
2.51
(a) Timely issuance ascertained by reference to shipping date
2.52
(b) Reason for using shipping date as reference point
2.53
2.54
2.55
(c) Timely issuance ascertained by reference to date of intended beneficiary’s request for the credit
2.56
2.57
E Advising of Credit
2.58
2.59
2.60
(1) Presumption of apparent authenticity
2.61
2.62
(2) Presumption of accuracy of advice
2.63
2.64
(3) Against whom should the beneficiary enforce inaccurately advised credit?
2.65
2.66
2.67
2.68
(4) Conclusion
2.69
2.70
F Effect of an Issued and Duly Advised Credit
2.71
(1) Liability of applicant to pay the purchase price or repay the loan
2.72
(a) McNair J.’s view in the Soproma case
2.73
2.74
(b) The orthodox position
2.75
2.76
2.77 Overarching principle
(ii) Object of the principle
2.78
2.79
2.80
(c) Extinguishment of applicant’s liability for the purchase price or repayment of the loan
2.81
2.82 Acceptance of credit in preference to cash payment
2.83 Neglect to make a complying presentation before expiry of credit
(iii) Refusal to present documents to an issuer in receivership
2.84
2.85
2.86
2.87
2.88
(iv) Want of notification of issuer’s default to applicant
2.89
2.90
(v) Credit issuer appointed by beneficiary
2.91
2.92
2.93
2.94
(2) Applicant’s promise to put the issuer in funds to honour credit
2.95
(a) Right to reclaim the sum paid before the issuer’s implosion
2.96
(b) Withholding of funds upon having knowledge of issuer’s financial troubles
2.97
2.98
2.99
2.100
3 Consequences of Failure to Issue a Conforming Credit
3.01
3.02
A Beneficiary’s Duty upon Receipt of a Non-conforming Credit
3.03
3.04
3.05
(1) Waiver of breach
3.06
3.07 Identification of waiver.
(2) Characterization of beneficiary’s presumptive approval of defects in credit
3.08
(a) Why the characterization matters
3.09
(b) Cases in point
3.10
3.11
Analysis.
3.12
3.13
Panoutsos and its forebears examined.
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17 Conclusion.
(3) Discontinuance of waiver
3.18
3.19
B Liability for the Non-issuance of a Conforming Credit
3.20
(1) Beneficiary’s claim
3.21
(a) Claim in contract
3.22
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
3.27
(b) Third party intended to be benefited by the credit advising contract
3.28
3.29
3.30
3.31
(c) Claim in the tort of negligence
3.32
3.33
3.34
3.35
3.36
3.37
3.38
3.39
3.40
3.41
3.42
3.43
3.44
(2) Applicant’s potential cause of action
3.45
(a) Applicability of the disclaimers in Articles 35 and 37 of the UCP 600
3.46
3.47
3.48
3.49
3.50
(b) History and development of the disclaimer clauses
3.51
3.52
3.53
(c) Effectiveness of the disclaimer clauses at common law
3.54
3.55
3.56
3.57
3.58
3.59
3.60
3.61
3.62
3.63
3.64
3.65
(d) Validity of the disclaimer clause under the Unfair Contract Terms Act
3.66
3.67
3.68
3.69
3.70
(e) Scope of relevance of the disclaimer clauses to non-UCP incorporating credits
3.71
3.72
3.73
3.74
C Conclusion
3.75
3.76
Part II Proper Performance under the Operative Credit
Preliminary Material
Introduction to Part II
PII.01
PII.02
PII.03
PII.04
PII.05
PII.06
4 Presenting Documents to Draw on the Credit
A An Overview of the Process
4.01
4.02
4.03
4.04
4.05 The issues outlined.
B Who is to Present Documents for Honour or Negotiation?
4.06
4.07
C The Bank to Which Documents are To Be Presented
(1) Cases where a credit is silent on the presentee bank
4.08
4.09
(2) The position where the presentee bank is specified
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
(a) Presenter’s rights if the presentee branch sits on documents
4.14
4.15
Chemical Bank’s decision.
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
Implications of Article 10 (a) of UCP 600.
4.20
4.21
Estoppel by representation.
4.22
4.23
4.24
4.25
4.26
4.27
4.28
4.29
4.30
4.31
(b) Scope of directions in sub-articles 6 (a) and (d) (ii) of the UCP 600
4.32
4.33
4.34
4.35
4.36
D Medium of Delivering Documents
4.37
4.38
4.39
Mercantile Bank
4.40
4.41
4.42
4.43
E Timeliness of Presentation
4.44
(1) Preliminary points as to what constitutes a timely presentation
4.45
4.46
4.47
(2) Requisites of Article 29 (a) of the UCP 600
4.48
(3) Presentation during regular banking hours
4.49
4.50
4.51
(4) Presentation outside regular banking hours
4.52
4.53
Receipt of documents in mailroom after banking hours.
4.54
4.55
(5) A nominated bank’s timely honour or negotiation of documents
4.56
4.57
4.58
4.59
(6) Timeous delivery of transport documents
4.60
4.61
4.62
4.63
4.64
4.65
F Presentation Documents Missing or Delayed in Transit
4.66
4.67
4.68
4.69 Case 1
Case 2
4.70
4.71
4.72
(1) What impact may Article 35 have on the beneficiary’s rights?
4.73
4.74
4.75
4.76
4.77
(2) Is there a right to realize the credit when forwarded documents are lost in transit?
4.78
4.79
4.80
4.81
G Conclusion
4.82
4.83
4.84
4.85
5 Presentee Bank’s Document Examination Duties
A Preliminary Matters of Concern to a Reasonably Prudent Presentee Bank
5.01
5.02
5.03
5.04
5.05
5.06
5.07
5.08
5.09
B Sources of Banking Practice Involved in Document Examination
5.10
5.11
(1) Non-UCP ICC publications expressing standard banking practice
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
(2) Banking practices documented by regional bankers’ associations
5.18
5.19
(3) Local banking practices
5.20
5.21
5.22
(4) Standard banking practice derived from expert evidence
5.23
5.24
5.25
5.26
5.27
5.28
5.29
(5) Standard banking practice reflected in treatises
5.30
(6) Conclusion
5.31
C Standard of Care and Diligence Required of the Presentee Bank
(1) Introduction
5.32
5.33
5.34
(2) Presentee bank owes a duty of care to the presenting beneficiary?
5.35
5.36
5.37
(a) American cases
5.38
5.39
5.40
5.41
(b) Likely approach in the UK courts
5.42
5.43
Application of the Caparo test.
5.44
5.45
5.46
5.47
5.48
5.49
(3) What should the examining bank do with an unstipulated document?
5.50
5.51
5.52
(a) Singapore position
5.53
5.54
(b) The US stance
5.55
5.56
5.57
5.58
D Examining Issuing Bank’s Right to Consult the Applicant
5.59
5.60
5.61
(1) Advantages of consultation
5.62
5.63
(2) Permissible acts of consultation
5.64
5.65
5.66
5.67
5.68
5.69
Conclusion.
5.70
5.71
E The Timescale for Completing Examination of the Documents
5.72
(1) Relationship of the date of presentation and Article 14 (b) five-day period
5.73
(2) What does ‘a maximum of five-days’ require of the examining bank?
5.74
5.75
5.76
5.77
5.78
5.79
5.80
5.81
5.82
5.83
F Conclusion
5.84
5.85
5.86
5.87
6 Conceptual Criteria for Identifying Conforming Documents
A Introduction
6.01
6.02
Bifurcated standard.
6.03
6.04
6.05
Autonomy doctrine.
6.06
6.07
6.08
6.09
6.10
B Rationale Behind Strict Documentary Compliance Doctrine
6.11
6.12
6.13
(1) Inapplicability of de minimis non curat lex
6.14
(2) Major criticism of the doctrine
6.15
6.16
6.17
(3) Limitations of the criticism
6.18
6.19
6.20
6.21
6.22
6.23
6.24
6.25
6.26
6.27
6.28
6.29
C Business Common Sense Underpinnings of the Doctrine
6.30
6.31
6.32
6.33
6.34
6.35
6.36
6.37
6.38
(1) Interaction between Article 14 (d) UCP 600 and case law
6.39
6.40
6.41
6.42
(2) Imputation of nominated bank’s knowledge of local practice to issuer
6.43
(3) Extra data or description in tendered documents generally
6.44
6.45
6.46
6.47
6.48
6.49
6.50
6.51
6.52
6.53
(4) Stipulated information
6.54
6.55
6.56
(5) ‘Read documents together’ rule
6.57
6.58
6.59
6.60
6.61
6.62
6.63
6.64
6.65
6.66
6.67
6.68
6.69
D Credit Agreement Clauses Allegedly Entitling Issuer to Reimbursement Despite Discrepancies in Documents
6.70
6.71
6.72
6.73
6.74
6.75
6.76
6.77
6.78
6.79
6.80
6.81
6.82
6.83
6.84
6.85 Conclusion.
7 Requirements for Specific Modes of Documentation
7.01
7.02
A Date of Issuance of Document
7.03
7.04
7.05
B Inclusion of the Particulars of the Applicant and Beneficiary in Documents
7.06
7.07
7.08
7.09
7.10
7.11
C Constituents of Original Documents and Copies
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
D Particular Types of Documents
7.20
7.21
7.22
(1) Commercial invoice
7.23
7.24
(a) Description of goods or services in the invoice
7.25
7.26
7.27
7.28
7.29
7.30
(b) Additional words in the invoice
7.31
7.32
7.33
7.34
7.35
7.36
(2) Bill of lading
(a) Introduction
7.37
(b) Traditional lines differentiating ‘order bill’ from ‘straight bill’
7.38
7.39
7.40
7.41
7.42
7.43
7.44 Issues arising for analysis.
(c) ‘Bill of lading date’ and ‘date of shipment’ distinguished
7.45
7.46
7.47
7.48 Special importance of distinguishing between the separate dates.
(d) Effect of a clause in a bill of lading providing for trans-shipment
7.49
7.50
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54
7.55
7.56
(e) Is it material that a straight bill is tendered instead of an order bill?
7.57
7.58
7.59
7.60
7.61
7.62
7.63
7.64
7.65
7.66
7.67
7.68
7.69
7.70
(f) Must a full set of the bill of lading be presented?
7.71
7.72
7.73
7.74
7.75
7.76
7.77
7.78
(g) What amounts to a ‘clean bill of lading’?
7.79
7.80
7.81
7.82
7.83
7.84
7.85
7.86
7.87
(h) When is a bill of lading treated as ‘shipped’?
7.88
7.89
7.90
7.91
7.92
7.93
7.94
7.95
7.96
(i) How may the carrier be properly identified in the bill of lading?
7.97
7.98
7.99
7.100
7.101
7.102
7.103
7.104
7.105
7.106
7.107
7.108
7.109
7.110
E Conclusion
7.111
7.112
7.113
7.114
8 Unavailable Stipulated Document
8.01
8.02
A Supervening Events Rendering a Document Unobtainable
8.03
8.04
B Draft Drawn on Credit Applicant
8.05
8.06
8.07
8.08
8.09
8.10
8.11
C Certificate from a Named Party
8.12
8.13
(1) Presentation deficient in beneficiary’s or nominated bank’s certificate
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
(2) Applicant’s non-issuance of the required document
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
(a) Issuer’s right to insist upon presentation of the document
8.22
(b) Issuer’s cancellation of credit following applicant’s non-issuance of document
8.23
(c) Applicant’s non-issuance of the document as a breach of contract
8.24
8.25
8.26
8.27 Criticism.
(d) Enforceability of non-issuance of document against a sovereign credit applicant
8.28
8.29
8.30 Conclusion.
(e) An order directing applicant to release the document
8.31
8.32
(3) Issuing bank’s non-issuance of a required document to beneficiary
8.33
8.34
8.35
8.36
8.37
8.38
8.39
8.40
(4) Non-issuance of document by a party outside the credit scene
8.41
8.42
8.43
8.44
8.45
8.46
8.47
8.48
D Non-presentation of a Document Evidencing Fulfilment of a Non-documentary Term
8.49
8.50
8.51
(1) Common causes of non-documentary conditions in credits
8.52
8.53
(2) Judicial treatment of non-documentary requirements prior to UCP 500
8.54
8.55
8.56
8.57
8.58
8.59
8.60
(3) Fortunes of non-documentary clauses since the UCP 500 to date
8.61
8.62
8.63
8.64
8.65
(4) Conclusion
8.66
8.67
9 Procedures for Handling a Non-complying Presentation
A Introduction
9.01
9.02
B Bank’s Task upon Verifying that a Presentation is in Good Order
9.03
9.04
C Courses of Action Open to the Presentee Bank if the Tender is Faulty
9.05
9.06
9.07
9.08
9.09
9.10
9.11
D Requisites for an Effective Rejection Notice
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
(1) The point in time when a rejection notice is presumed given
9.18
9.19
9.20
9.21
9.22
9.23
(2) Materiality of a statement communicating refusal of payment
9.24
9.25
9.26
9.27
9.28
9.29
9.30
9.31
9.32
9.33
9.34
9.35
9.36
9.37
9.38
9.39
(3) The extent of the obligation to communicate discrepancies
9.40
9.41
9.42
9.43
9.44
9.45
9.46
9.47
9.48
(4) Theoretical basis of the single notice of discrepancies rule
9.49
9.50
9.51
9.52
9.53
9.54
9.55
9.56
9.57
9.58
9.59
9.60
9.61
9.62
9.63
9.64
9.65
9.66
9.67
(5) Regularity of an advice on the fate of dishonoured documents
9.68
9.69
9.70
9.71
9.72
9.73
9.74
E Effect of the Disposal Statement in a Rejection Notice
9.75
(1) Background principles as to prevailing mercantile customs
9.76
9.77
9.78
9.79
9.80
(2) Fortis Bank v. Indian Overseas Bank case
9.81
9.82
9.83
9.84
9.85
9.86
9.87
9.88
(a) Existence in Article 16 (c) (iii) of a duty to return the documents
9.89
9.90
9.91
9.92
9.93
9.94
9.95
9.96
(b) The time within which to effect return of the documents
9.97
9.98
9.99
9.100
9.101
9.102
9.103
9.104
F Conclusion
9.105
9.106
9.107
9.108
9.109
Part III Contract Choice of Law Issues
Preliminary Material
Introduction to Part III
PIII.01
PIII.02
PIII.03
PIII.04
PIII.05
PIII.06
PIII.07
PIII.08
PIII.09
PIII.010
PIII.011
PIII.012
PIII.013
PIII.014
PIII.015
10 The Law Applicable to Beneficiary’s Presentation for Payment
A Prevailing Approaches in the United States
10.01
10.02
10.03
10.04
10.05
10.06
10.07
10.08
10.09
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
10.15
10.16
10.17
10.18
10.19
10.20
10.21
10.22
10.23
10.24
10.25
10.26
10.27
10.28
10.29
10.30
10.31
10.32
10.33
10.34
10.35
10.36
10.37
10.38
10.39
B The Position at Common Law and under the Rome I Regulation
(1) General aspects of the applicable choice of law rules
10.40
10.41
10.42
10.43
10.44
10.45
10.46
10.47
10.48
10.49
10.50
10.51
10.52
(2) Credits expressed available to the beneficiary through a nominated bank
10.53
10.54
10.55
10.56
10.57
10.58
10.59
10.60
10.61
10.62
10.63
10.64
10.65
10.66
10.67
10.68
10.69
10.70
10.71
10.72
(3) Credits not involving a nominated paying bank
10.73
10.74
10.75
10.76
10.77
(4) Credits purportedly ambiguous as to mode of availability
10.78
10.79
10.80
10.81
10.82
Analysis.
10.83
10.84
10.85
10.86
10.87
10.88
10.89
10.90
10.91
10.92
10.93
10.94
10.95
10.96
10.97
C Conclusion
10.98
10.99
10.100
11 Nominated Bank’s Right of Reimbursement
A Some Background
11.01
11.02
11.03
11.04
11.05
11.06
11.07
B Advising Bank that has Honoured Documents on Issuing Bank’s Behalf
11.08
11.09
(1) The technique adopted in the US
11.10
11.11
11.12
11.13
11.14
11.15
11.16
11.17
11.18
11.19
11.20
11.21
11.22
(2) Attitudes of the common law and Rome I Regulation
11.23
11.24
11.25
11.26
11.27
11.28
C Confirming Bank’s Claim for Reimbursement under a US Jurisdiction
11.29
11.30
11.31
11.32
11.33
11.34
11.35
11.36
11.37
11.38
11.39
11.40
11.41
11.42
11.43
D Confirming Bank’s Claim at Common Law or under Rome I Regulation
11.44
(1) Introduction
11.45
11.46
11.47
(2) Underlying considerations determining the law controlling the confirmer’s claim
11.48
11.49
11.50
11.51
11.52
11.53
11.54
11.55
11.56
11.57
11.58
11.59
11.60
11.61
11.62
11.63
11.64
11.65
11.66
11.67
(3) Application of Article 4 of the Rome I Regulation to the confirmer’s claim
11.68
11.69
11.70
11.71
11.72
11.73
11.74
11.75
11.76
E Non-obligated Nominated Bank that has Purchased Documents in Its Own Right
11.77
(1) Revised Article 5’s stance
11.78
11.79
11.80
(2) The law governing the purchase at common law and under Rome I Regulation
11.81
11.82
11.83
11.84
11.85
(a) Is the applicable law that of the expected place of delivering documents to issuer?
11.86
11.87
11.88
11.89
11.90
11.91
(b) Is the applicable law that of the place stipulated for negotiation of documents?
11.92
11.93
11.94
11.95
11.96
(c) Cases regarding promise of reimbursement in a particular jurisdiction
11.97
11.98
11.99
11.100
11.101
11.102
11.103
F Lex situs of a Debt Arising Out of the Letter of Credit
11.104
11.105
11.106
11.107
11.108
11.109
11.110
11.111
11.112
11.113
G Conclusion
11.114
11.115
Further Material
Index
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Part II Proper Performance under the Operative Credit, 4 Presenting Documents to Draw on the Credit
From:
Letters of Credit: The Law and Practice of Compliance
Ebenezer Adodo
Content type:
Book content
Product:
International Commercial Law [ICML]
Published in print:
01 February 2014
ISBN:
9780199674077
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