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Oxford Law Citator
Contents
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International Arbitration in the Energy Sector edited by Scherer, Maxi (22nd February 2018)
Preliminary Material
Contents—Summary
Contents—Detailed
Table of Cases
Arbitral Tribunals
International Chamber of Commerce
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
Permanent Court of Arbitration
Stockholm Chamber of Commerce
Other Institutional Arbitrations
Ad Hoc Arbitrations
International Courts, Tribunals Etc.
European Commission and Court of Justice
International Court of Justice
World Trade Organization
Other International Courts and Tribunals
National Courts
Australia
Canada
Germany
Netherlands
Russia
United Kingdom
Supreme Court/House of Lords
English Court of Appeal
English High Court
Privy Council
United States of America
United States Supreme Court
United States Circuit Court of Appeals
United States District Courts
State Courts
Other National Courts
Table of Legislation and Other Sources
International Instruments
Investment Treaties
Other Treaties and Conventions
National Legislation
Rules, Guidelines, and Codes
List of Abbreviations
List of Contributors
Main Text
1 Introduction
I Importance of International Arbitration in the Energy Sector
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.06
II Scope and Content of This Book
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
1.30
III Specific Features of Energy Arbitration
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.34
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
Part I Commercial Arbitration in the Energy Sector
2 Upstream Oil and Gas Disputes
I Introduction
2.01
2.02
2.03
2.04
2.05
II Joint Operating Agreement
A Purpose of the JOA
2.06
2.07
B Parties and their roles
2.08
2.09
2.10
2.11
C Governing law and dispute resolution mechanism
2.12
2.13
2.14
D Leading model form JOAs
2.15
2.16
2.17
E Anti-bribery and corruption
2.18
2.19
III Operators’ Duties
A Potential battle lines between the operator and non-operators
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
B Exculpatory/limitation clauses: ‘wilful misconduct or gross negligence’
2.25
2.26
2.27
2.28
2.29
2.30
2.31
2.32
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.36
2.37
C Additional obligations that may be implied by the substantive law of the JOA
2.38
1 Good faith and fair dealing
2.39
2.40
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
2.48
2 Fiduciary duties
2.49
2.50
2.51
2.52
2.53
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.57
IV Pre-emption Rights
A Purpose of pre-emption rights
2.58
2.59
2.60
B Common features of pre-emption clauses
2.61
2.62
2.63
2.64
C Common avoidance mechanisms giving rise to disputes
2.65
1 Transactions circumventing a transfer or change of control clause
2.66
2.67
2.68
2.69
2.70
2.71
2.72
2.73
2.74
2.75
2.76
2.77
2 Quasi-transfer mechanisms
2.78
2.79
2.80
2.81
3 Terms of a pre-emption offer
2.82
2.83
2.84
2.85
2.86
2.87
2.88
2.89
2.90
2.91
2.92
V Default and Forfeiture
A Funding of the joint venture
2.93
2.94
2.95
2.96
B Disputes giving rise to default and forfeiture
2.97
2.98
2.99
2.100
C Remedies available in the event of non-payment of a cash call
2.101
2.102
1 Default
2.103
2.104
2.105
2.106
2.107
a Issues arising in relation to the suspension of rights
2.108
2.109
2.110
b Issues arising in relation to the sale of the defaulting party’s entitlement
2.111
2.112
2.113
2 Forfeiture
2.114
2.115
2.116
a Challenges to forfeiture
2.117
2.118
2.119
b An unenforceable penalty?
2.120
2.121
2.122
2.123
2.124
2.125
2.126
c Principal factors relevant to upholding forfeiture remedies
2.127
(1) The JOA is a contract executed by sophisticated, legally-advised commercial parties
2.128
(2) The forfeiture remedy is available to all parties
2.129
(3) The remedy is not disproportionate or oppressive, but properly reflects the importance of funding the venture through the JOA cash call procedure
2.130
2.131
(4) A cure period is available
2.132
d Principal factors relevant to challenging forfeiture remedies
2.133
(1) The defaulting party may forfeit a very valuable participating interest following a trivial breach
2.134
2.135
2.136
(2) The remedy will apply to a wide range of breaches and may be a blunt instrument
2.137
2.138
(3) The purpose of the remedy is to deter breaches and punish the defaulting party, rather than to compensate the non-defaulting parties
2.139
2.140
2.141
2.142
e Application of the principles in practice
2.143
2.144
2.145
2.146
2.147
2.148
3 Other remedies—buy-out, enforcement of security, and withering
2.149
a Buy-out
2.150
b Enforcement of security
2.151
c Withering
2.152
2.153
2.154
VI Conclusion
2.155
3 Gas Supply Transactions and Disputes
I Introduction
3.01
3.02
II Gas Supply Transactions
3.03
3.04
A Production and processing contracts
3.05
3.06
3.07
3.08
3.09
B Sales from producers to wholesalers
3.10
1 Transportation
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
2 Gas supply agreements between producers and wholesalers (export-import transactions)
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
a Long-term agreements for the supply of gas
3.24
(1) Long-term GSPAs for gas by pipeline
3.25
(a) Delivery point
3.26
(b) Delivery specifications
3.27
(c) Supply volumes
3.28
(d) ‘Take-or-pay’ obligations
3.29
(e) Supply flexibility
3.30
3.31
3.32
(f) Price
3.33
3.34
3.35
3.36
3.37
(g) Price Review
3.38
3.39
3.40
3.41
3.42
3.43
(h) Force majeure
3.44
3.45
(2) Long-term GSPAs for LNG
3.46
3.47
3.48
3.49
3.50
3.51
3.52
3.53
b Supply of gas from gas hubs
3.54
3.55
3.56
3.57
3.58
C Sales from wholesalers to end users
3.59
3.60
3.61
3.62
3.63
1 Sale of gas from wholesalers to end users
3.64
3.65
2 Transportation within markets
3.66
3.67
3 Storage
3.68
3.69
3.70
3.71
III Gas Supply Disputes
3.72
A Gas price review arbitrations
3.73
3.74
3.75
3.76
3.77
3.78
3.79
3.80
3.81
3.82
3.83
3.84
B Disputes over supply failures
3.85
3.86
C Competition law and regulatory issues
3.87
3.88
3.89
D Disputes regarding transportation infrastructure
3.90
3.91
3.92
E Storage disputes
3.93
3.94
3.95
F Construction disputes
3.96
3.97
3.98
IV Conclusion
3.99
4 Renewable Energy Disputes
I Introduction
4.01
4.02
4.03
4.04
4.05
4.06
4.07
4.08
4.09
4.10
4.11
II Challenges relating to Arbitrating Commercial Renewable Energy Disputes
A Complex project and contract structures
4.12
1 Overview
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
2 Turnkey versus multi-contracting
4.17
4.18
4.19
3 Bankability
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.23
4.24
4.25
4 Operation, maintenance, and service
4.26
4.27
5 Risks and interfaces
4.28
4.29
B Types of disputes
4.30
1 Disputes during the development phase
4.31
4.32
4.33
4.34
4.35
2 Disputes during the construction phase
4.36
4.37
4.38
4.39
4.40
4.41
3 Disputes during the operational phase
4.42
4.43
4.44
4.45
4.46
4.47
C Procedural issues
4.48
1 Early and efficient resolution of disputes
4.49
4.50
2 Complex technical issues
4.51
4.52
4.53
3 Multi-party and multi-contract scenarios
4.54
4.55
4.56
4.57
4.58
4 Multi-jurisdictional disputes
4.59
4.60
III The Parties’ Perspectives on Renewable Energy Disputes
4.61
A Multi-tier dispute resolution
4.62
4.63
4.64
B Expertise of decision-makers
4.65
4.66
C Enforceability of decisions
4.67
4.68
D Arbitration as the preferred dispute resolution mechanism for renewables projects
4.69
4.70
4.71
IV Conclusion
4.72
4.73
4.74
5 Energy Construction and Infrastructure Disputes
I Introduction
5.01
5.02
II Energy and Infrastructure Construction Projects
5.03
5.04
5.05
5.06
5.07
5.08
5.09
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
III Standard Form Contracts
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22
5.23
5.24
IV Legal Issues from an English Law Perspective
5.25
A Contract interpretation
5.26
5.27
5.28
5.29
5.30
5.31
5.32
5.33
5.34
5.35
B Changes or variations to the contract work
5.36
5.37
5.38
5.39
5.40
5.41
5.42
5.43
5.44
5.45
5.46
5.47
5.48
C Time and delay
5.49
5.50
5.51
5.52
5.53
5.54
5.55
5.56
5.57
5.58
5.59
5.60
5.61
5.62
5.63
5.64
5.65
5.66
D Termination
5.67
5.68
5.69
5.70
5.71
5.72
5.73
5.74
5.75
5.76
5.77
5.78
V Conclusion
5.79
6 Mining Disputes
I Introduction
6.01
6.02
6.03
6.04
6.05
6.06
6.07
6.08
6.09
II What Are Mining Disputes?
A Types of mining disputes
6.10
6.11
B Thinking about mining disputes
6.12
6.13
6.14
C Mining disputes and overlap with general energy law
6.15
6.16
III Mining Disputes in Practice
6.17
A Key firms, categorization of disputes, and key sources
6.18
B Recent examples of mining disputes
6.19
1 Peru (local protests)
6.20
2 Zimbabwe (local disputes)
6.21
3 Finland (local protests)
6.22
4 Niger (investor-state dispute)
6.23
5 Indonesia (investor-state arbitration)
6.24
C International arbitration in the mining sector
6.25
6.26
6.27
6.28
6.29
6.30
6.31
6.32
6.33
D Lessons from mining disputes
6.34
6.35
IV Future of Resolving Mining Sector Disputes
6.36
A Information disclosure
6.37
1 Environmental impact assessments (EIAs)
6.38
6.39
2 Social licence to operate (SLO)
6.40
3 Energy financial reserve obligation (EFRO)
6.41
4 Extractive industries transparency initiative (EITI)
6.42
6.43
B Preventing mining disputes through ‘energy justice’
6.44
6.45
6.46
6.47
V Conclusion and Future Outlook
6.48
6.49
6.50
6.51
6.52
Part II Investor-State Arbitration in the Energy Sector
7 Contractual Mechanisms for Stability in Energy Contracts
I Introduction: Energy Contracts and Providing for Change
7.01
7.02
7.03
7.04
7.05
7.06
7.07
II Typical Law Stabilization or Freezing Clauses
7.08
7.09
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.20
7.21
7.22
7.23
III Adjustment, Force Majeure, Hardship, and Economic Equilibrium Clauses
7.24
7.25
7.26
7.27
7.28
7.29
7.30
7.31
7.32
7.33
IV Enforcement of Stabilization Clauses in International Arbitration Proceedings
7.34
A Historical approach
7.35
7.36
7.37
7.38
7.39
7.40
B Contemporary approach
7.41
7.42
7.43
7.44
7.45
7.46
7.47
V Multi-Tier Dispute Resolution Clauses
7.48
7.49
7.50
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54
7.55
7.56
VI Conclusion
7.57
7.58
7.59
7.60
7.61
7.62
7.63
7.64
7.65
8 Overview of Energy Charter Treaty Cases
I Introduction
8.01
8.02
8.03
8.04
8.05
II Awards Rendered and Pending Cases
A Cases
8.06
8.07
8.08
8.09
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
B Parties
8.16
1 Investors
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
2 Respondent states
8.23
8.24
8.25
8.26
C Types of investments
8.27
8.28
8.29
D Arbitration rules
8.30
8.31
8.32
8.33
III Jurisdictional Objections under the ECT
8.34
A Provisional application under Article 45 ECT
8.35
1 Petrobart v Kyrgyzstan
8.36
8.37
2 Kardassopoulos v Georgia
8.38
8.39
8.40
3 Yukos v Russia
8.41
8.42
8.43
8.44
8.45
8.46
8.47
B Denial of benefits under Article 17(1) ECT
8.48
8.49
1 Jurisdiction or merits?
8.50
8.51
8.52
8.53
8.54
2 Meaning of the reference to nationals of a ‘third state’ in Article 17 ECT
8.55
3 Meaning of ‘substantial business activities’
8.56
4 When will a state be deemed to have exercised its right to deny benefits pursuant to Article 17(1) ECT?
8.57
8.58
8.59
5 Retrospective or prospective effect of denial of benefits pursuant to Article 17 ECT
8.60
8.61
8.62
C ‘Investment’ under Article 1(6) ECT
8.63
8.64
8.65
8.66
IV Selected Merits Issues
8.67
8.68
8.69
8.70
8.71
8.72
8.73
8.74
8.75
8.76
8.77
8.78
8.79
8.80
8.81
8.82
8.83
8.84
8.85
V Future of the ECT
8.86
8.87
8.88
8.89
9 ECT and European Union Law
I Introduction
9.01
9.02
9.03
9.04
9.05
II EU as a Party to the ECT
9.06
9.07
9.08
A EU law as a jurisdictional defence
9.09
1 Jurisdiction in intra-EU BIT cases
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
9.19
9.20
9.21
9.22
2 Jurisdiction in intra-EU ECT cases
9.23
9.24
9.25
9.26
9.27
9.28
B EU law as a substantive defence
9.29
9.30
9.31
9.32
1 Electrabel
9.33
9.34
9.35
9.36
9.37
9.38
9.39
2 Micula
9.40
9.41
9.42
9.43
9.44
9.45
9.46
III Conclusion
9.47
9.48
9.49
9.50
9.51
10 ECT and States’ Right to Regulate
I Introduction
10.01
10.02
10.03
10.04
II States’ Right to Regulate and Their Substantive Obligations under the ECT
10.05
10.06
10.07
10.08
10.09
III Jurisprudence under the ECT regarding States’ Right to Regulate
10.10
10.11
A Article 13(1) ECT
10.12
10.13
10.14
10.15
10.16
10.17
10.18
10.19
10.20
10.21
10.22
10.23
10.24
10.25
10.26
10.27
10.28
10.29
10.30
10.31
10.32
10.33
10.34
10.35
10.36
10.37
10.38
10.39
B Article 10(1) ECT
10.40
10.41
1 Fair and equitable treatment
a Obligation to provide stable, equitable, favourable, and transparent conditions
10.42
10.43
10.44
10.45
10.46
10.47
b Purpose and context of the regulatory measures
10.48
10.49
10.50
10.51
10.52
10.53
10.54
10.55
10.56
10.57
10.58
10.59
10.60
10.61
10.62
10.63
10.64
10.65
10.66
10.67
10.68
c Interference of the regulatory measures with the legitimate expectations of the investor
10.69
d What can give rise to legitimate expectations?
10.70
10.71
10.72
10.73
10.74
10.75
10.76
10.77
e Standard for legitimate expectations
10.78
10.79
10.80
10.81
10.82
f Methodology of implementation of the regulatory measures
10.83
10.84
10.85
10.86
10.87
2 Unreasonable or discriminatory measures
a Relationship with the FET standard
10.88
10.89
10.90
10.91
10.92
b Application of the regulatory measures cannot be discriminatory
10.93
10.94
10.95
10.96
10.97
10.98
3 Constant protection and security
10.99
10.100
10.101
10.102
10.103
IV Conclusion
10.104
10.105
10.106
10.107
10.108
11 ECT and Renewable Energy Disputes
I Introduction
11.01
11.02
11.03
II Renewables Sector Regulations
11.04
11.05
11.06
11.07
11.08
11.09
11.10
11.11
III ECT and Renewable Energy
11.12
11.13
IV First ECT Arbitration
11.14
11.15
11.16
11.17
V Recent Renewable ECT Arbitrations
11.18
11.19
11.20
A Choice of forum and tribunals
11.21
11.22
11.23
11.24
11.25
11.26
11.27
11.28
11.29
B Charanne award
11.30
11.31
11.32
11.33
11.34
11.35
11.36
C Charanne dissenting opinion
11.37
11.38
11.39
11.40
D RREEF v Spain award on jurisdiction
11.41
11.42
11.43
E Eiser award
11.44
11.45
VI Italy’s Withdrawal from the ECT
11.46
11.47
11.48
11.49
11.50
11.51
VII Conclusion
11.52
11.53
11.54
12 Energy Investor-State Disputes in Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States
I Introduction
12.01
II Multilateral Investment Treaties
A ECT and the Russian Federation
12.02
12.03
12.04
12.05
B Moscow Convention on the Protection of Investor’s Rights of 1997
12.06
12.07
12.08
12.09
12.10
12.11
C International treaties within the framework of the Eurasian Economic Community and Eurasian Economic Union
12.12
12.13
12.14
12.15
12.16
12.17
12.18
12.19
12.20
12.21
III Bilateral Investment Treaties
12.22
12.23
12.24
12.25
12.26
12.27
12.28
12.29
12.30
12.31
12.32
12.33
12.34
12.35
12.36
IV National Legislation
12.37
12.38
12.39
12.40
12.41
12.42
12.43
V Individual Investment Agreements
12.44
12.45
12.46
12.47
12.48
12.49
12.50
12.51
12.52
12.53
VI Conclusion
12.54
12.55
12.56
12.57
12.58
12.59
13 Energy Investor-State Disputes in Latin America
I Introduction
13.01
13.02
13.03
II Historical Background of Energy Investor-State Arbitration in Latin America
13.04
13.05
13.06
13.07
III Assessing Fiscal Measures under Investment Protection Agreements
13.08
13.09
13.10
13.11
A Fiscal measures vis-à-vis the FET standard
13.12
1 Excluding the fiscal measures from assessment under the FET standard
13.13
13.14
13.15
13.16
13.17
13.18
13.19
13.20
13.21
13.22
13.23
13.24
2 Assessing the fiscal measures’ compliance with the FET standard
13.25
13.26
13.27
13.28
13.29
13.30
B Fiscal measures vis-à-vis expropriation
13.31
13.32
13.33
13.34
IV Assessing Nationalizations under Investment Protection Agreements
13.35
13.36
13.37
13.38
13.39
13.40
13.41
13.42
13.43
V Gaining Access to Investor-State Arbitration through Corporate Restructuring
13.44
13.45
13.46
13.47
VI Conclusion
13.48
13.49
13.50
14 Energy Investor-State Disputes in Asia
I Introduction
14.01
14.02
14.03
14.04
14.05
II South and East Asian Attitudes towards Investor-State Arbitration
14.06
14.07
A Case studies
14.08
1 Saudi Arabia v ARAMCO
14.09
14.10
14.11
14.12
14.13
14.14
14.15
14.16
14.17
14.18
2 Himpurna and Patuha Power
14.19
14.20
14.21
14.22
14.23
14.24
14.25
14.26
14.27
14.28
14.29
3 Saipem v Bangladesh
14.30
14.31
14.32
14.33
14.34
14.35
14.36
14.37
14.38
14.39
4 White Industries v India
14.40
14.41
14.42
14.43
14.44
14.45
14.46
14.47
14.48
14.49
14.50
5 Churchill Mining v Indonesia
14.51
14.52
14.53
14.54
14.55
14.56
14.57
14.58
14.59
14.60
14.61
B Analysis
14.62
14.63
14.64
14.65
14.66
III Reviving Investor-State Dispute Resolution in Asia
14.67
14.68
14.69
14.70
14.71
14.72
IV Conclusion
14.73
15 Energy Investor-State Disputes in Africa
I Introduction
15.01
15.02
15.03
15.04
15.05
II Laws Regulating the Energy Sector in Africa
15.06
15.07
15.08
15.09
15.10
15.11
15.12
15.13
15.14
15.15
15.16
III Laws Regulating Investors’ Rights in Africa
15.17
A Treaties
15.18
15.19
15.20
15.21
15.22
15.23
15.24
15.25
15.26
15.27
15.28
15.29
15.30
B Municipal legislation
15.31
15.32
15.33
15.34
C Contracts
15.35
15.36
IV Dispute Resolution Mechanisms
15.37
A Dispute resolution mechanisms under treaties
15.38
15.39
15.40
15.41
15.42
15.43
B Dispute resolution mechanisms under municipal legislation
15.44
15.45
15.46
15.47
15.48
C Dispute resolution mechanisms under contracts
15.49
15.50
V Status Quo in Energy Investor-State Disputes in Africa
15.51
15.52
A Investor-State disputes arising out of BITs
15.53
15.54
1 Adverse tax measures
15.55
15.56
2 Local content
15.57
15.58
15.59
B Investor-State disputes arising out of contracts
15.60
1 Unilateral interpretation of contract or violation of contractual terms
15.61
2 Commodity price volatility
15.62
15.63
15.64
VI Conclusion
15.65
15.66
15.67
15.68
15.69
15.70
Part III Public International Law Disputes, Climate Disputes, and Sustainable Development in the Energy Sector
16 International Boundary Disputes and Natural Resources
I Introduction
16.01
16.02
16.03
16.04
16.05
16.06
16.07
16.08
II Determination of Modern Boundaries
A Ancient history and colonial expansion
16.09
16.10
16.11
16.12
16.13
16.14
16.15
B Modern boundary disputes: a brief overview
16.16
16.17
16.18
16.19
16.20
C Current and continuing demand for oil and its effects on border disputes
16.21
16.22
16.23
16.24
16.25
16.26
16.27
16.28
16.29
16.30
D New demand for natural resources for renewable energy and its effects on border disputes
16.31
16.32
16.33
16.34
16.35
16.36
16.37
III Additional Impact of Irreversible Climate Change Damage to Other Resources
16.38
16.39
16.40
16.41
16.42
16.43
16.44
16.45
16.46
16.47
16.48
16.49
IV Conclusion
16.50
16.51
16.52
17 Climate Disputes and Sustainable Development in the Energy Sector: Bridging the Enforceability Gap
I Introduction
17.01
17.02
II Sustainability Objectives for Energy
17.03
17.04
17.05
17.06
17.07
17.08
17.09
17.10
17.11
17.12
17.13
III Instruments for Enforcement
17.14
17.15
17.16
17.17
17.18
17.19
17.20
17.21
17.22
17.23
17.24
IV Enforcement in Practice
17.25
17.26
A Investor-State arbitration: investment protection and renewable energy
17.27
17.28
17.29
17.30
17.31
17.32
17.33
17.34
17.35
17.36
B Litigation before domestic courts: a possible model?
17.37
17.38
17.39
17.40
17.41
C International commercial arbitration: investing for sustainability
17.42
17.43
17.44
17.45
17.46
17.47
17.48
17.49
17.50
V Conclusion: New Instruments on the Horizon?
17.51
17.52
17.53
17.54
17.55
17.56
17.57
18 Climate Disputes and Sustainable Development in the Energy Sector: Future Directives
I Introduction
18.01
18.02
18.03
18.04
18.05
II International Arbitration as a Means to Effectively Resolve Climate Change Disputes
A Carbon trading systems: the case for international arbitration
18.06
18.07
18.08
18.09
18.10
18.11
18.12
18.13
18.14
B PCA Environmental Rules
18.15
18.16
18.17
18.18
18.19
18.20
18.21
18.22
18.23
18.24
C PCA and carbon trading disputes
18.25
18.26
18.27
18.28
18.29
III Key Considerations for the Development of Bespoke Environmental Arbitration Rules
18.30
A Transparency
18.31
18.32
18.33
B Consent and broader participation
18.34
18.35
C Mechanisms for early disclosure
18.36
D Early resolution of dispositive issues
18.37
E Roster of climate change arbitrators and experts
18.38
IV Conclusion
18.39
Further Material
Bibliography
Index
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Table of Cases
Maxi Scherer
From:
International Arbitration in the Energy Sector
Edited By: Maxi Scherer
Content type:
Book content
Product:
International Commercial Arbitration [ICMA]
Published in print:
22 February 2018
ISBN:
9780198805786
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